{"id":12474,"date":"2026-05-05T18:42:44","date_gmt":"2026-05-05T13:12:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/?p=12474"},"modified":"2026-08-04T15:32:27","modified_gmt":"2026-08-04T10:02:27","slug":"dbms-roadmap-2026-complete-learning-path-for-beginners-to-advanced","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/dbms-roadmap-2026-complete-learning-path-for-beginners-to-advanced\/","title":{"rendered":"DBMS Roadmap 2026: Complete Learning Path for Beginners to Advanced"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

DBMS is one of the most important core subjects for computer science students and is consistently asked in product company interviews. Whether you\u2019re preparing for placements or aiming for backend roles, a strong understanding of databases is non-negotiable.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This roadmap gives you a clear, step-by-step path: from ER modeling and normalization to SQL mastery, transactions, ACID properties, indexing, query optimization, and NoSQL systems. It\u2019s designed as a 16-week structured plan so you know exactly what to learn and when.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

One important distinction: DBMS is broader than SQL. DBMS focuses on concepts like database design, normalization, and transactions, while SQL is the tool used to interact with databases. If SQL is \u201chow you query,\u201d DBMS is \u201chow systems are designed and managed.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/span>Why Learn DBMS? Career & Interview Relevance<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

DBMS is not just another subject it\u2019s one of the core pillars of SDE interviews, alongside Data Structures and Operating Systems. In most product company interviews, you won\u2019t get away with surface-level knowledge. Interviewers expect you to explain concepts clearly and apply them to real scenarios.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\nScaler Carousel<\/title>\n\n<!-- Plus Jakarta Sans Font -->\n<link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Plus+Jakarta+Sans:wght@400;500;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n<!-- Swiper CSS -->\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.css\">\n\n<style>\n.scaler-carousel {\n font-family: 'Plus Jakarta Sans', sans-serif;\n max-width: 900px;\n margin: 24px auto;\n padding: 0;\n box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n.scaler-carousel *,\n.scaler-carousel *::before,\n.scaler-carousel *::after {\n box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n\n\/* Header *\/\n.scaler-header {\n text-align: center;\n margin-bottom: 20px;\n}\n.scaler-header-title {\n font-size: 22px;\n font-weight: 700;\n color: #1a1a2e;\n margin: 0 0 6px;\n line-height: 1.2;\n}\n.scaler-header-subtitle {\n font-size: 14px;\n color: #6b7280;\n margin: 0;\n font-weight: 500;\n}\n\n\/* 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white-space: nowrap;\n}\n.scaler-logo-strip {\n display: block;\n width: 100% !important;\n max-width: 100%;\n min-width: 0;\n height: auto !important;\n object-fit: contain;\n}\n\n\/* CTA *\/\n.scaler-card-btns {\n margin-top: auto;\n}\n.scaler-card-btns button {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n gap: 8px;\n width: 100%;\n padding: 12px 16px;\n border: none;\n border-radius: 10px;\n background-color: #255aad;\n color: #ffffff;\n font-family: 'Plus Jakarta Sans', sans-serif;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n cursor: pointer;\n text-decoration: none;\n transition: opacity 0.15s ease;\n}\n.scaler-card-btns button:hover,\n.scaler-card-btns button:focus {\n opacity: 0.88;\n color: #ffffff;\n}\n.scaler-card-btns button svg {\n flex-shrink: 0;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 1000px) {\n .scaler-carousel { max-width: 96vw; }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n\n<div class=\"scaler-carousel\">\n <div class=\"scaler-header\">\n <h2 class=\"scaler-header-title\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"transform-your-career\"><\/span>Transform Your Career<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n <p class=\"scaler-header-subtitle\">Choose from our industry-leading programs designed for career success<\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"swiper scaler-swiper\">\n <div class=\"swiper-wrapper\">\n\n <!-- CARD 1 -->\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <div class=\"scaler-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-badge\">NSDC Certified<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-icon-wrap\">\n <svg width=\"26\" height=\"26\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"16 18 22 12 16 6\"\/><polyline points=\"8 6 2 12 8 18\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top-content\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-title\">Modern Software and AI Engineering Program<\/h3>\n <p class=\"scaler-desc\">Master full-stack development with AI integration<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stats\">\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">12 Months<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Duration<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">AI-Led<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Curriculum<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">Career Support<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Support<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-logos\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Google_2015_logo.svg\" alt=\"Google\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Amazon_logo.svg\" alt=\"Amazon\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Paytm_logo.png\" alt=\"Paytm\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <span class=\"scaler-logo-more\">+1000 more<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-btns\">\n <button onclick=\"window.open('https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/academy\/', '_blank')\">\n Go to Program\n <svg width=\"14\" height=\"14\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M3 8H13M13 8L9 4M13 8L9 12\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- CARD 2 -->\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <div class=\"scaler-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-badge\">NSDC Certified<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-icon-wrap\">\n <svg width=\"26\" height=\"26\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><ellipse cx=\"12\" cy=\"5\" rx=\"9\" ry=\"3\"\/><path d=\"M3 5v14c0 1.66 4.03 3 9 3s9-1.34 9-3V5\"\/><path d=\"M3 12c0 1.66 4.03 3 9 3s9-1.34 9-3\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top-content\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-title\">Modern Data Science and ML with specialisation in AI<\/h3>\n <p class=\"scaler-desc\">Advanced data science techniques with AI specialization<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stats\">\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">12 Months<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Duration<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">AI-Led<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Curriculum<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">Career Support<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Support<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-logos\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Google_2015_logo.svg\" alt=\"Google\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Amazon_logo.svg\" alt=\"Amazon\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Paytm_logo.png\" alt=\"Paytm\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <span class=\"scaler-logo-more\">+1000 more<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-btns\">\n <button onclick=\"window.open('https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/data-science-course\/', '_blank')\">\n Go to Program\n <svg width=\"14\" height=\"14\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M3 8H13M13 8L9 4M13 8L9 12\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- CARD 3 -->\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <div class=\"scaler-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-badge\">NSDC Certified<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-icon-wrap\">\n <svg width=\"26\" height=\"26\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M12 2L13.5 8.5L20 10L13.5 11.5L12 18L10.5 11.5L4 10L10.5 8.5L12 2Z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top-content\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-title\">Advanced AIML with Specialisation in Agentic AI<\/h3>\n <p class=\"scaler-desc\">Deep dive into AIML with focus on Agentic systems<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stats\">\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">12 Months<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Duration<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">AI-Led<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Curriculum<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">Career Support<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Support<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-logos\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Google_2015_logo.svg\" alt=\"Google\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Amazon_logo.svg\" alt=\"Amazon\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Paytm_logo.png\" alt=\"Paytm\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <span class=\"scaler-logo-more\">+1000 more<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-btns\">\n <button onclick=\"window.open('https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/ai-machine-learning-course\/', '_blank')\">\n Go to Program\n <svg width=\"14\" height=\"14\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M3 8H13M13 8L9 4M13 8L9 12\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- CARD 4 -->\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <div class=\"scaler-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-badge\">NSDC Certified<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-icon-wrap\">\n <svg width=\"26\" height=\"26\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\">\n <path d=\"M17.5 19H9a7 7 0 1 1 6.71-9h1.79a4.5 4.5 0 1 1 0 9Z\" \/>\n <path d=\"M9.2 15.2a3 3 0 1 0 4.24-4.24\" \/>\n <\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top-content\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-title\">DevOps, Cloud & AI Platform Engineering<\/h3>\n <p class=\"scaler-desc\">Build and manage AI-powered cloud infrastructure<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stats\">\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">12 Months<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Duration<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">AI-Led<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Curriculum<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">Career Support<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Support<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-logos\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Google_2015_logo.svg\" alt=\"Google\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Amazon_logo.svg\" alt=\"Amazon\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-company-logo\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Paytm_logo.png\" alt=\"Paytm\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <span class=\"scaler-logo-more\">+1000 more<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-btns\">\n <button onclick=\"window.open('https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/devops-course\/', '_blank')\">\n Go to Program\n <svg width=\"14\" height=\"14\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M3 8H13M13 8L9 4M13 8L9 12\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- CARD 5 -->\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <div class=\"scaler-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-badge\">NSDC Certified<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-icon-wrap\">\n <svg width=\"26\" height=\"26\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\">\n <line x1=\"3\" y1=\"22\" x2=\"21\" y2=\"22\" \/>\n <line x1=\"6\" y1=\"18\" x2=\"6\" y2=\"11\" \/>\n <line x1=\"10\" y1=\"18\" x2=\"10\" y2=\"11\" \/>\n <line x1=\"14\" y1=\"18\" x2=\"14\" y2=\"11\" \/>\n <line x1=\"18\" y1=\"18\" x2=\"18\" y2=\"11\" \/>\n <polygon points=\"12 2 20 7 4 7\" \/>\n <\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-top-content\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-title\">AI Engineering Advanced Certification by IIT-Roorkee<\/h3>\n <p class=\"scaler-desc\">Premier AI engineering certification from IIT-Roorkee<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stats\">\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">3 Months<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Duration<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">AI-Led<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Curriculum<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-stat\"><span class=\"scaler-stat-value\">Career Support<\/span><span class=\"scaler-stat-label\">Support<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-logos\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-logo-strip\" src=\"https:\/\/scaler-blog-prod-wp-content.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/08135139\/iitr-icons-strip.png\" alt=\"Program highlights\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-card-btns\">\n <button onclick=\"window.open('https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/iit-roorkee-advanced-ai-engineering-course\/', '_blank')\">\n Go to Program\n <svg width=\"14\" height=\"14\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M3 8H13M13 8L9 4M13 8L9 12\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- Continue for remaining cards (6\u20138) using same pattern -->\n\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"swiper-button-next\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"swiper-button-prev\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"swiper-pagination\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<!-- Swiper.js -->\n<script src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.js\"><\/script>\n<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function () {\n const pathParts = window.location.pathname.split(\"\/\").filter(Boolean);\n const slug = pathParts[pathParts.length - 1] || \"\";\n const readableSlug = encodeURIComponent(slug);\n const buttons = document.querySelectorAll(\".scaler-card-btns button\");\n\n buttons.forEach((btn) => {\n const baseURL = btn.getAttribute(\"onclick\").match(\/'(.*?)'\/)[1];\n if (!baseURL.includes(\"utm_source=\")) {\n const separator = baseURL.includes(\"?\") ? \"&\" : \"?\";\n const updatedURL = `${baseURL}${separator}utm_source=blog&utm_medium=program_carousel&utm_content=${readableSlug}`;\n btn.setAttribute(\"onclick\", `window.open('${updatedURL}', '_blank')`);\n }\n });\n\n new Swiper(\".scaler-swiper\", {\n slidesPerView: 1,\n spaceBetween: 28,\n grabCursor: true,\n navigation: { nextEl: \".swiper-button-next\", prevEl: \".swiper-button-prev\" },\n pagination: { el: \".swiper-pagination\", dynamicBullets: true, clickable: true },\n breakpoints: { 1000: { slidesPerView: 2 } },\n keyboard: { enabled: true },\n });\n});\n<\/script>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You\u2019ll regularly face questions like:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>What is normalization and why is it needed?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Explain ACID properties with real-world examples<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does indexing improve performance?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What causes a deadlock and how do you prevent it?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These aren\u2019t theoretical questions, they test whether you understand how systems behave in production.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For backend developers, DBMS becomes even more important. Every application, whether it\u2019s an e-commerce platform, banking system, or social media app, depends on how well the database is designed. A poorly designed database leads to slow queries, inconsistent data, and scaling issues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Learning DBMS helps you:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Crack technical interviews with strong conceptual clarity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Design scalable systems that handle millions of users<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Optimize performance using indexing and query tuning<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Understand real-world systems, how data is stored, accessed, and maintained<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If DSA helps you solve problems, DBMS helps you build systems that actually work at scale.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"dbms-roadmap-phase-1-fundamentals-weeks-1%e2%80%934\"><\/span><strong>DBMS Roadmap: Phase 1 ,  Fundamentals (Weeks 1\u20134)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This phase builds your foundation. Most students rush into SQL, but without understanding how databases are designed, SQL becomes mechanical. These 4 weeks focus on how data is structured and why.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>What Is DBMS? Types of Databases<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that allows you to store, organize, retrieve, and manage data efficiently. Instead of working with raw files, DBMS provides structured ways to interact with data using queries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At a deeper level, a DBMS handles:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Data storage and retrieval<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Security and access control<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Concurrency (multiple users accessing data)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Data integrity and consistency<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should understand different types of databases and when to use them:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Relational Databases (RDBMS)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Data is stored in tables (rows and columns)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Follows strict schema<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Uses SQL for querying<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Best for structured data and consistency<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>NoSQL Databases<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Examples: MongoDB, Redis<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flexible schema (or schema-less)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Types: document, key-value, column-family<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Designed for scalability and high performance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used in large-scale systems like social media<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Distributed Databases<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Data is spread across multiple machines<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Improves availability and fault tolerance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used in large-scale systems (e.g., cloud platforms)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Focus on understanding how databases store, retrieve, and manage data internally, not just definitions.<\/p>\n\n\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\n <meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\n\n <!-- Source Sans Pro (topics font) -->\n <link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Source+Sans+3:wght@400;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n <link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.css\">\n <script src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.js\"><\/script>\n\n <style>\n :root {\n \/* topics design tokens (variables.scss) *\/\n --scaler-primary: #005bb3; \/* primary-color-80 *\/\n --scaler-primary-30: #8acaff; \/* primary-color-30 *\/\n --scaler-brand-blue: #255aad;\n --scaler-live: #ee001d; \/* accent-v5-60 *\/\n --scaler-live-bg: #ffe6e9; \/* accent-v5-10 *\/\n --scaler-card-bg: #ffffff; \/* neutral-scale-0 *\/\n --scaler-surface: #f4f6f9; \/* neutral-scale-2 *\/\n --scaler-text-primary: #1a2c47; \/* neutral-scale-12 *\/\n --scaler-text-secondary: #61738e; \/* neutral-scale-9 *\/\n --scaler-border: #d6dee5; \/* neutral-scale-4 *\/\n --scaler-radius: 16px;\n --scaler-radius-sm: 8px;\n --scaler-shadow: 0 8px 16px 0 rgba(50, 71, 102, 0.16);\n }\n\n .scaler-events-carousel * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n\n .scaler-events-carousel {\n font-family: \"Source Sans 3\", \"Source Sans Pro\", \"Roboto\", Arial, sans-serif;\n padding: 24px;\n position: relative;\n width: 100%;\n }\n .scaler-events-carousel__inner {\n max-width: 1000px;\n margin: 0 auto;\n position: relative;\n width: 100%;\n }\n\n \/* Header \u2014 calendar icon + \"Live Masterclasses\" *\/\n .scaler-events-header {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 8px;\n margin-bottom: 8px;\n padding: 8px 0;\n }\n .scaler-events-header__icon { display: inline-flex; color: var(--scaler-text-primary); }\n .scaler-events-header__icon svg { width: 24px; height: 24px; }\n .scaler-events-header__title {\n font-size: 18px;\n font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n line-height: 1.3;\n margin: 0;\n }\n\n \/* Swiper wrap (holds side arrows) *\/\n .scaler-events-swiper-wrap { position: relative; }\n .scaler-events-carousel .swiper { width: 100%; padding: 4px; }\n .scaler-event-swiper .swiper-slide {\n width: 296px; \/* topics card_container width *\/\n height: auto;\n display: flex;\n }\n\n \/* Event Card \u2014 matches topics EventCard *\/\n .scaler-event-card {\n background: var(--scaler-card-bg);\n border: 1px solid var(--scaler-border);\n border-radius: var(--scaler-radius);\n padding: 16px;\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n height: 100%;\n width: 100%;\n cursor: pointer;\n }\n\n \/* Header row: headshot + title\/name *\/\n .scaler-event-card__header { display: flex; align-items: flex-start; }\n .scaler-event-card__image-wrapper {\n position: relative;\n width: 88px;\n height: 88px;\n min-width: 88px;\n border-radius: var(--scaler-radius-sm);\n overflow: hidden;\n background: var(--scaler-primary-30);\n }\n .scaler-event-card__image {\n position: absolute;\n top: 0; left: 0;\n width: 100%; height: 100%;\n object-fit: cover;\n }\n \/* attendee-count footer (default) *\/\n .scaler-event-card__img-footer {\n position: absolute;\n left: 0; right: 0; bottom: 0;\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n gap: 4px;\n padding: 1px 8px;\n background: var(--scaler-surface);\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n font-size: 13px;\n line-height: 22px;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__img-footer svg { width: 14px; height: 14px; }\n \/* live chip (shown when status === current) *\/\n .scaler-event-card__live-badge {\n position: absolute;\n left: 0; right: 0; bottom: 0;\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n gap: 5px;\n padding: 1px 8px;\n background: var(--scaler-live-bg);\n color: var(--scaler-live);\n font-size: 12px;\n line-height: 22px;\n text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 0.18em;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__live-badge::before {\n content: \"\";\n width: 6px; height: 6px;\n background: var(--scaler-live);\n border-radius: 50%;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__text { margin-left: 16px; min-width: 0; }\n .scaler-event-card__title {\n font-size: 20px;\n font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n margin: 0;\n line-height: 1.4;\n display: -webkit-box;\n -webkit-line-clamp: 2;\n -webkit-box-orient: vertical;\n overflow: hidden;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__speaker {\n margin-top: 8px;\n font-size: 14px;\n line-height: 1.4;\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n }\n\n \/* Takeaways *\/\n .scaler-event-card__takeaways {\n margin-top: 12px;\n min-height: 50px;\n max-height: 50px;\n overflow: hidden;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__takeaway-item {\n display: flex;\n align-items: flex-start;\n gap: 6px;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__dot {\n width: 4px; height: 4px;\n min-width: 4px;\n border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--scaler-text-secondary);\n margin-top: 11px;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__takeaway-text {\n flex: 1;\n min-width: 0;\n font-size: 14px;\n line-height: 24px;\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n white-space: nowrap;\n overflow: hidden;\n text-overflow: ellipsis;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__knowmore,\n .scaler-event-card__knowmore:link,\n .scaler-event-card__knowmore:visited {\n flex-shrink: 0;\n font-size: 14px;\n line-height: 24px;\n color: var(--scaler-primary) !important;\n text-decoration: none;\n white-space: nowrap;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__knowmore:hover { text-decoration: underline; }\n\n \/* Date + duration *\/\n .scaler-event-card__meta {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: space-between;\n margin-top: 20px;\n font-size: 13px;\n line-height: 24px;\n color: var(--scaler-text-primary);\n }\n .scaler-event-card__duration {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 4px;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__duration svg { width: 15px; height: 15px; }\n\n .scaler-event-card__spacer { flex-grow: 1; min-height: 4px; }\n\n \/* CTA \u2014 outlined \"Register with 1-Click\" *\/\n .scaler-event-card__cta,\n .scaler-event-card__cta:link,\n .scaler-event-card__cta:visited {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n width: 100%;\n margin-top: 16px;\n padding: 8px;\n background: transparent;\n color: var(--scaler-primary) !important;\n font-family: inherit;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 24px;\n text-decoration: none;\n border: 1px solid var(--scaler-primary);\n border-radius: var(--scaler-radius-sm);\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: background 0.2s ease, color 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-event-card__cta:hover,\n .scaler-event-card__cta:focus {\n background: var(--scaler-primary);\n color: #fff !important;\n }\n\n \/* Side navigation arrows *\/\n .scaler-events-nav__btn {\n position: absolute !important;\n top: 50% !important;\n transform: translateY(-50%) !important;\n z-index: 2;\n width: 46px !important;\n height: 46px !important;\n min-width: 46px;\n display: flex !important;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n padding: 0 !important;\n background: var(--scaler-card-bg) !important;\n border: none !important;\n border-radius: var(--scaler-radius-sm) !important;\n box-shadow: var(--scaler-shadow) !important;\n color: var(--scaler-text-secondary) !important;\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: opacity 0.2s ease, visibility 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-nav-prev { left: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-nav-next { right: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-events-nav__btn svg {\n width: 20px !important;\n height: 20px !important;\n fill: var(--scaler-text-secondary) !important;\n }\n .scaler-events-nav__btn.swiper-button-disabled {\n opacity: 0;\n visibility: hidden;\n pointer-events: none;\n }\n\n \/* View All Events *\/\n .scaler-events-viewall,\n .scaler-events-viewall:link,\n .scaler-events-viewall:visited {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n gap: 6px;\n margin-top: 12px;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--scaler-brand-blue) !important;\n text-decoration: none;\n }\n .scaler-events-viewall:hover { text-decoration: underline; }\n .scaler-events-viewall svg { width: 16px; height: 16px; fill: var(--scaler-brand-blue); }\n\n \/* hide swiper defaults *\/\n .scaler-events-pagination { display: none; }\n .scaler-events-carousel .swiper-button-prev,\n .scaler-events-carousel .swiper-button-next { display: none; }\n\n \/* Skeleton & Empty States *\/\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton { pointer-events: none; }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__image-wrapper,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__title,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__speaker,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__takeaways,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__meta,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__cta {\n background: linear-gradient(90deg, var(--scaler-border) 25%, var(--scaler-surface) 50%, var(--scaler-border) 75%);\n background-size: 200% 100%;\n animation: shimmer 1.5s infinite;\n color: transparent !important;\n border-color: transparent !important;\n border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__title { min-height: 44px; }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__speaker { min-height: 16px; }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__meta { min-height: 24px; }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__cta { min-height: 40px; }\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__image,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__img-footer,\n .scaler-event-card--skeleton .scaler-event-card__live-badge { display: none; }\n\n @keyframes shimmer {\n 0% { background-position: 200% 0; }\n 100% { background-position: -200% 0; }\n }\n\n .scaler-events-empty {\n text-align: center;\n padding: 40px 20px;\n color: var(--scaler-text-secondary);\n font-size: 15px;\n }\n\n @media (max-width: 768px) {\n .scaler-events-carousel { padding: 16px; }\n .scaler-event-swiper .swiper-slide { width: calc(100vw - 52px); }\n .scaler-events-nav__btn { display: none; }\n }\n <\/style>\n\n\n\n <div class=\"scaler-events-carousel js-scaler-carousel\">\n\n <template class=\"js-event-card-template\">\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <article class=\"scaler-event-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__header\">\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__image-wrapper\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"\" alt=\"\" class=\"scaler-event-card__image\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__img-footer\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M11.199 7.957c-3.086 0-5.588 2.502-5.588 5.588s2.502 5.588 5.588 5.588c3.086 0 5.588-2.502 5.588-5.588s-2.502-5.588-5.588-5.588zM3.611 13.545c0-4.191 3.397-7.588 7.588-7.588s7.588 3.397 7.588 7.588c0 4.191-3.397 7.588-7.588 7.588s-7.588-3.397-7.588-7.588z\"\/><path d=\"M21.090 6.369h0.003c1.989 0 3.897 0.79 5.303 2.197s2.197 3.314 2.197 5.303-0.79 3.897-2.197 5.303c-1.406 1.407-3.314 2.197-5.303 2.197-0.552 0-1-0.448-1-1s0.448-1 1-1c1.459 0 2.858-0.579 3.889-1.611s1.611-2.43 1.611-3.889c0-1.459-0.58-2.858-1.611-3.889s-2.429-1.611-3.888-1.611c-0.507 0.002-1.013 0.070-1.502 0.203-0.533 0.145-1.082-0.17-1.227-0.703s0.17-1.082 0.703-1.227c0.659-0.179 1.339-0.27 2.021-0.272z\"\/><path d=\"M10.906 21.364c-1.605 0-3.186 0.386-4.61 1.126s-2.649 1.811-3.572 3.124c-0.318 0.452-0.941 0.561-1.393 0.243s-0.561-0.941-0.243-1.393c1.107-1.576 2.577-2.862 4.286-3.749s3.606-1.351 5.532-1.351 3.823 0.463 5.532 1.351c1.709 0.888 3.179 2.174 4.286 3.749 0.318 0.452 0.209 1.076-0.243 1.393s-1.076 0.209-1.393-0.243c-0.923-1.313-2.148-2.385-3.572-3.124s-3.005-1.126-4.61-1.126z\"\/><\/svg>\n <span class=\"js-event-count\"><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__live-badge\" style=\"display: none;\">Live<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__text\">\n <h3 class=\"scaler-event-card__title\"><\/h3>\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__speaker js-event-speaker\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__takeaways js-event-takeaways\"><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__spacer\"><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-event-card__meta\">\n <span class=\"js-event-date\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-event-card__duration\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M16 6.333c6.443 0 11.667 5.223 11.667 11.667s-5.223 11.667-11.667 11.667c-6.443 0-11.667-5.223-11.667-11.667v0c0.008-6.44 5.226-11.659 11.666-11.667h0.001zM16 28.333c5.707 0 10.333-4.626 10.333-10.333s-4.626-10.333-10.333-10.333c-5.707 0-10.333 4.626-10.333 10.333v0c0.007 5.704 4.629 10.326 10.333 10.333h0.001z\"\/><path d=\"M16 18.667c-0 0-0.001 0-0.001 0-0.184 0-0.35-0.074-0.471-0.195v0c-0.121-0.121-0.195-0.287-0.195-0.471s0.075-0.351 0.195-0.471l4.951-4.952c0.121-0.121 0.287-0.195 0.471-0.195s0.351 0.075 0.471 0.195v0c0.121 0.121 0.195 0.287 0.195 0.471s-0.075 0.351-0.195 0.471l-4.949 4.951c-0.121 0.121-0.288 0.196-0.472 0.196v0z\"\/><path d=\"M19 3.667h-6c-0.368 0-0.667-0.298-0.667-0.667v0c0-0.368 0.298-0.667 0.667-0.667v0h6c0.368 0 0.667 0.298 0.667 0.667v0c0 0.368-0.298 0.667-0.667 0.667v0z\"\/><\/svg>\n <span class=\"js-event-duration\"><\/span>\n <\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <a href=\"#\" class=\"scaler-event-card__cta js-event-cta\">Register with 1-Click<\/a>\n <\/article>\n <\/div>\n <\/template>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-events-carousel__inner\">\n <header class=\"scaler-events-header\">\n <span class=\"scaler-events-header__icon\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 33 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M6.406 6.8c-0.11 0-0.2 0.090-0.2 0.2v20c0 0.11 0.090 0.2 0.2 0.2h20c0.11 0 0.2-0.090 0.2-0.2v-20c0-0.11-0.090-0.2-0.2-0.2h-20zM4.606 7c0-0.994 0.806-1.8 1.8-1.8h20c0.994 0 1.8 0.806 1.8 1.8v20c0 0.994-0.806 1.8-1.8 1.8h-20c-0.994 0-1.8-0.806-1.8-1.8v-20z\"\/><path d=\"M22.406 3.2c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8v4c0 0.442-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8s-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8v-4c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8z\"\/><path d=\"M10.406 3.2c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8v4c0 0.442-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8s-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8v-4c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8z\"\/><path d=\"M4.606 12c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h22c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-22c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"\/><path d=\"M21.488 16.451c0.303 0.322 0.288 0.828-0.034 1.131l-5.838 5.5c-0.309 0.291-0.791 0.29-1.099-0.002l-3.162-3c-0.321-0.304-0.334-0.81-0.030-1.131s0.81-0.334 1.131-0.030l2.614 2.48 5.287-4.981c0.322-0.303 0.828-0.288 1.131 0.034z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/span>\n <h2 class=\"scaler-events-header__title\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"live-masterclasses\"><\/span>Live Masterclasses<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n <\/header>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-events-swiper-wrap\">\n <div class=\"swiper scaler-event-swiper\">\n <div class=\"swiper-wrapper scaler-events-wrapper\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"swiper-pagination scaler-events-pagination\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <button class=\"scaler-events-nav__btn scaler-nav-prev\" aria-label=\"Previous slide\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(-90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"scaler-events-nav__btn scaler-nav-next\" aria-label=\"Next slide\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n\n <a class=\"scaler-events-viewall\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/events\/\">\n <span>View All Events<\/span>\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <script>\n document.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", () => {\n\n const monthNames = [\"January\",\"February\",\"March\",\"April\",\"May\",\"June\",\"July\",\"August\",\"September\",\"October\",\"November\",\"December\"];\n\n function formatTime(st) {\n const t = new Date(st);\n const date = t.getDate();\n const month = monthNames[t.getMonth()];\n const year = t.getFullYear();\n const h = t.getHours();\n const m = String(t.getMinutes()).padStart(2, \"0\");\n let time;\n if (h === 0) time = `12:${m} AM`;\n else if (h === 12) time = `12:${m} PM`;\n else if (h > 12) time = `${h - 12}:${m} PM`;\n else time = `${h}:${m} AM`;\n return `${date} ${month} ${year} | ${time}`;\n }\n\n const carouselInstances = document.querySelectorAll('.js-scaler-carousel');\n\n carouselInstances.forEach(container => {\n\n if(container.dataset.initialized === \"true\") return;\n container.dataset.initialized = \"true\";\n\n const swiperElement = container.querySelector(\".scaler-event-swiper\");\n const swiperWrapper = container.querySelector(\".scaler-events-wrapper\");\n const template = container.querySelector(\".js-event-card-template\");\n const nextBtn = container.querySelector(\".scaler-nav-next\");\n const prevBtn = container.querySelector(\".scaler-nav-prev\");\n const paginationEl = container.querySelector(\".scaler-events-pagination\");\n\n if (!swiperWrapper || !template) {\n console.error(\"Scaler Carousel: Missing required elements inside container\");\n return;\n }\n\n const swiper = new Swiper(swiperElement, {\n slidesPerView: \"auto\",\n spaceBetween: 16,\n grabCursor: true,\n observer: true,\n observeParents: true,\n pagination: {\n el: paginationEl,\n clickable: true,\n dynamicBullets: true\n },\n navigation: {\n nextEl: nextBtn,\n prevEl: prevBtn\n },\n });\n\n function showSkeletons(count = 4) {\n swiperWrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n const card = clone.querySelector(\".scaler-event-card\");\n card.classList.add(\"scaler-event-card--skeleton\");\n swiperWrapper.appendChild(clone);\n }\n swiper.update();\n }\n\n function renderEvents(events) {\n swiperWrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n\n if (events.length === 0) {\n swiperWrapper.innerHTML = `<div class=\"scaler-events-empty\">No upcoming masterclasses found.<\/div>`;\n return;\n }\n\n const pathParts = location.pathname.split(\"\/\").filter(Boolean);\n const currentSlug = pathParts.length > 0 ? pathParts[pathParts.length - 1] : \"homepage\";\n\n events.forEach(event => {\n const attr = event.attributes;\n const cd = attr.custom_data || {};\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n const joinUrl = `\/event\/${attr.slug}\/?utm_source=blog&utm_medium=master_class&utm_content=${currentSlug}`;\n\n \/\/ Instructor headshot\n const instructor = (cd.instructors && cd.instructors[0]) || {};\n const img = clone.querySelector(\".scaler-event-card__image\");\n img.src = instructor.media_url || attr.image_url ||\n \"https:\/\/images.unsplash.com\/photo-1531891437562-4301cf35b7e4?w=200&h=200&fit=crop\";\n img.alt = instructor.name || attr.instructor_name || attr.title;\n\n \/\/ Title + speaker\n clone.querySelector(\".scaler-event-card__title\").textContent = attr.title;\n clone.querySelector(\".js-event-speaker\").textContent = instructor.name || attr.instructor_name || \"\";\n\n \/\/ Live chip vs attendee count\n const isLive = attr.status === \"current\";\n const footer = clone.querySelector(\".scaler-event-card__img-footer\");\n const liveBadge = clone.querySelector(\".scaler-event-card__live-badge\");\n if (isLive) {\n footer.style.display = \"none\";\n liveBadge.style.display = \"flex\";\n liveBadge.textContent = \"Live\";\n } else if (attr.registration_count) {\n clone.querySelector(\".js-event-count\").textContent = attr.registration_count;\n } else {\n footer.style.display = \"none\";\n }\n\n \/\/ Takeaways (up to 2, Know More on the last)\n const takeaways = (cd.takeaways || []).slice(0, 2);\n const listEl = clone.querySelector(\".js-event-takeaways\");\n listEl.innerHTML = \"\";\n takeaways.forEach((t, idx) => {\n const item = document.createElement(\"div\");\n item.className = \"scaler-event-card__takeaway-item\";\n const dot = document.createElement(\"span\");\n dot.className = \"scaler-event-card__dot\";\n const txt = document.createElement(\"span\");\n txt.className = \"scaler-event-card__takeaway-text\";\n txt.textContent = t;\n item.appendChild(dot);\n item.appendChild(txt);\n if (idx === takeaways.length - 1) {\n const km = document.createElement(\"a\");\n km.className = \"scaler-event-card__knowmore\";\n km.textContent = \"Know More\";\n km.href = joinUrl;\n item.appendChild(km);\n }\n listEl.appendChild(item);\n });\n\n \/\/ Date + duration\n clone.querySelector(\".js-event-date\").textContent = formatTime(attr.start_time);\n let hrs = \"\";\n if (attr.duration) {\n hrs = (attr.duration \/ 60).toFixed(2);\n } else if (attr.end_time) {\n hrs = (Math.abs(new Date(attr.start_time) - new Date(attr.end_time)) \/ 3600000).toFixed(2);\n }\n clone.querySelector(\".js-event-duration\").textContent = hrs ? `${hrs} Hrs` : \"\";\n\n \/\/ CTA\n clone.querySelector(\".js-event-cta\").href = joinUrl;\n\n swiperWrapper.appendChild(clone);\n });\n\n swiper.update();\n swiper.slideTo(0);\n }\n\n async function fetchEvents() {\n try {\n showSkeletons();\n const res = await fetch(\n \"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/api\/v4\/events?event_type[]=company&distributor=scaler&type=upcoming&serializer_mode=L2&limit=8&program[]=software_development&program[]=data_science&program[]=devops&program[]=ai_ml\"\n );\n const json = await res.json();\n const events = json.data || [];\n renderEvents(events);\n } catch (error) {\n console.error(\"Failed to load events:\", error);\n if(swiperWrapper) swiperWrapper.innerHTML = `<div class=\"scaler-events-empty\">Failed to load events.<\/div>`;\n }\n }\n\n fetchEvents();\n });\n });\n <\/script>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>ER Modeling & Schema Design<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before writing SQL, you must learn how to design a database properly. This is where beginners often struggle, but it\u2019s one of the most important skills.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">ER (Entity-Relationship) modeling helps you visualize the structure of your database.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key components:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Entities<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> These are real-world objects or concepts.<br>Example: Student, Course, Order<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Attributes<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Properties of entities.<br>Example: Student \u2192 name, id, age<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Relationships<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> How entities are connected.<br>Example: A student enrolls in a course<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Cardinality<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Defines the relationship type:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>One-to-One<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>One-to-Many<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Many-to-Many<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Constraints<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> Rules applied to data:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Primary Key (unique identifier)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Foreign Key (link between tables)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>NOT NULL, UNIQUE<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most important skill here is converting ER diagrams into relational schemas (tables).<br>For example, a many-to-many relationship is converted into a separate table with foreign keys.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This step ensures your database is logically correct before implementation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Relational Model & Relational Algebra<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once your schema is ready, you need to understand how relational databases actually work behind the scenes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Relational Model<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Data is stored in tables (relations)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Each row is a tuple<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Each column is an attribute<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Each table has a primary key<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This model ensures structure and consistency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Relational Algebra<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong> This is the theoretical foundation of SQL. It defines operations used to manipulate data.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key operations:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>SELECT \u2192 choose rows<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>PROJECT \u2192 choose columns<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>JOIN \u2192 combine tables<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>UNION \u2192 merge results<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>DIFFERENCE \u2192 find missing data<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Understanding relational algebra helps you see how queries are executed internally.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>How Queries Are Processed Conceptually<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When you write a SQL query, the DBMS doesn\u2019t execute it exactly as written. Instead, it:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Converts SQL into relational algebra<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Optimizes the query (chooses the fastest way)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Executes it using indexes and execution plans<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is why the same query can have different performance depending on how it\u2019s written.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Mastering this phase gives you a strong foundation for advanced topics like normalization, indexing, and query optimization later on.<\/p>\n\n\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\n <meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\n\n <!-- Source Sans Pro (topics font) -->\n <link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Source+Sans+3:wght@400;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n <link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.css\">\n <script src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.js\"><\/script>\n\n <style>\n :root {\n --cl-primary: #005bb3;\n --cl-brand-blue: #255aad;\n --cl-card-bg: #ffffff;\n --cl-surface: #f6f7f8;\n --cl-border: #d6dee5;\n --cl-text-primary: #1a2c47; \/* neutral-scale-12 *\/\n --cl-text-secondary: #61738e; \/* neutral-scale-9 *\/\n --cl-radius: 16px;\n --cl-radius-sm: 8px;\n --cl-shadow: 0 8px 16px 0 rgba(50, 71, 102, 0.16);\n }\n\n .scaler-courses * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n\n .scaler-courses {\n font-family: \"Source Sans 3\", \"Source Sans Pro\", \"Roboto\", Arial, sans-serif;\n padding: 24px;\n width: 100%;\n }\n .scaler-courses__inner {\n max-width: 1000px;\n margin: 0 auto;\n position: relative;\n width: 100%;\n }\n\n \/* Header *\/\n .scaler-courses__header {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 8px;\n margin-bottom: 8px;\n padding: 8px 0;\n }\n .scaler-courses__header-icon { display: inline-flex; color: var(--cl-text-primary); }\n .scaler-courses__header-icon svg { width: 24px; height: 24px; }\n .scaler-courses__title {\n font-size: 18px;\n font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--cl-text-primary);\n line-height: 1.3;\n margin: 0;\n }\n\n \/* Swiper *\/\n .scaler-courses__swiper-wrap { position: relative; }\n .scaler-courses .swiper { width: 100%; padding: 4px; }\n .scaler-courses-swiper .swiper-slide {\n width: 296px;\n height: auto;\n display: flex;\n }\n\n \/* Card *\/\n .scaler-course-card {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n width: 100%;\n height: 100%;\n min-height: 336px;\n background: var(--cl-card-bg);\n border: 1px solid var(--cl-border);\n border-radius: var(--cl-radius);\n overflow: hidden;\n text-decoration: none;\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: box-shadow 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-course-card:hover { box-shadow: 0 2px 12px rgba(50, 71, 102, 0.12); }\n\n .scaler-course-card__image {\n width: 100%;\n height: 128px;\n min-height: 128px;\n object-fit: cover;\n background: var(--cl-surface);\n display: block;\n }\n\n .scaler-course-card__detail {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n flex: 1 1 auto;\n padding: 16px 16px 8px;\n }\n .scaler-course-card__heading,\n .scaler-course-card__heading:link,\n .scaler-course-card__heading:visited {\n font-size: 20px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 1.4;\n color: var(--cl-text-primary) !important;\n margin: 0 0 8px;\n white-space: nowrap;\n overflow: hidden;\n text-overflow: ellipsis;\n }\n .scaler-course-card__instructor {\n font-size: 14px;\n line-height: 1.86;\n color: var(--cl-text-primary);\n white-space: nowrap;\n overflow: hidden;\n text-overflow: ellipsis;\n }\n .scaler-course-card__instructor b { font-weight: 700; }\n .scaler-course-card__desc {\n flex-grow: 1;\n margin-top: 8px;\n margin-bottom: 12px;\n font-size: 16px;\n line-height: 1.5;\n color: var(--cl-text-secondary);\n display: -webkit-box;\n -webkit-line-clamp: 2;\n -webkit-box-orient: vertical;\n overflow: hidden;\n }\n\n .scaler-course-card__footer {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: space-between;\n width: 100%;\n }\n .scaler-course-card__stat {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 4px;\n font-size: 14px;\n color: var(--cl-text-primary);\n }\n .scaler-course-card__stat svg { width: 18px; height: 18px; flex-shrink: 0; }\n .scaler-course-card__stat img { width: 20px; height: 20px; flex-shrink: 0; }\n\n \/* Side arrows *\/\n .scaler-courses__nav {\n position: absolute !important;\n top: 50% !important;\n transform: translateY(-50%) !important;\n z-index: 2;\n width: 46px !important; height: 46px !important; min-width: 46px;\n display: flex !important; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n padding: 0 !important;\n background: var(--cl-card-bg) !important;\n border: none !important;\n border-radius: var(--cl-radius-sm) !important;\n box-shadow: var(--cl-shadow) !important;\n color: var(--cl-text-secondary) !important;\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: opacity 0.2s ease, visibility 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-courses__nav--prev { left: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-courses__nav--next { right: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-courses__nav svg { width: 20px !important; height: 20px !important; fill: var(--cl-text-secondary) !important; }\n .scaler-courses__nav.swiper-button-disabled { opacity: 0; visibility: hidden; pointer-events: none; }\n\n .scaler-courses .swiper-button-prev,\n .scaler-courses .swiper-button-next,\n .scaler-courses .swiper-pagination { display: none; }\n\n \/* Skeleton *\/\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton { pointer-events: none; }\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__image,\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__heading,\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__instructor,\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__desc,\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__footer {\n background: linear-gradient(90deg, var(--cl-border) 25%, var(--cl-surface) 50%, var(--cl-border) 75%);\n background-size: 200% 100%;\n animation: cl-shimmer 1.5s infinite;\n color: transparent !important;\n border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__heading { height: 24px; margin: 0 0 8px; }\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__instructor { height: 16px; }\n .scaler-course-card--skeleton .scaler-course-card__footer { height: 20px; }\n @keyframes cl-shimmer { 0% { background-position: 200% 0; } 100% { background-position: -200% 0; } }\n\n .scaler-courses__empty { display: none; }\n\n @media (max-width: 768px) {\n .scaler-courses { padding: 16px; }\n .scaler-courses-swiper .swiper-slide { width: 260px; }\n .scaler-courses__nav { display: none !important; }\n }\n <\/style>\n\n\n <div class=\"scaler-courses js-scaler-courses\">\n\n <template class=\"js-course-card-template\">\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <a class=\"scaler-course-card js-course-link\" href=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-course-card__image 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class=\"scaler-courses__inner\">\n <div class=\"scaler-courses__header\">\n <span class=\"scaler-courses__header-icon\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M26.259 23.289h-20.518c-1.193 0-2.16-0.967-2.16-2.16v0-14.588c0-1.193 0.967-2.16 2.16-2.16v0h20.518c1.193 0 2.16 0.967 2.16 2.16v0 14.588c0 1.193-0.967 2.16-2.16 2.16v0zM5.741 5.501c-0.574 0-1.040 0.466-1.040 1.040v0 14.588c0 0.574 0.466 1.040 1.040 1.040v0h20.518c0.574 0 1.040-0.466 1.040-1.040v0-14.588c0-0.574-0.466-1.040-1.040-1.040v0z\"\/><path d=\"M19.764 27.619h-7.53c-0.309 0-0.56-0.251-0.56-0.56v0c0-0.309 0.251-0.56 0.56-0.56h7.53c0.309 0 0.56 0.251 0.56 0.56v0c0 0.309-0.251 0.56-0.56 0.56v0z\"\/><path d=\"M14.023 9.322c0.116 0 0.223 0.035 0.312 0.096l-0.002-0.001 5.93 3.953c0.151 0.102 0.249 0.272 0.249 0.466s-0.098 0.364-0.247 0.465l-0.002 0.001-5.93 3.953c-0.087 0.059-0.195 0.094-0.31 0.094-0.309 0-0.56-0.25-0.56-0.559v-7.906c0-0.309 0.251-0.56 0.56-0.56v0zM18.943 13.835l-4.36-2.906v5.813z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/span>\n <h2 class=\"scaler-courses__title\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"free-courses-by-top-scaler-instructors\"><\/span>Free Courses by top Scaler instructors<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-courses__swiper-wrap\">\n <div class=\"swiper scaler-courses-swiper\">\n <div class=\"swiper-wrapper js-courses-wrapper\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"swiper-pagination\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <button class=\"scaler-courses__nav scaler-courses__nav--prev js-courses-prev\" aria-label=\"Previous\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(-90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"scaler-courses__nav scaler-courses__nav--next js-courses-next\" aria-label=\"Next\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"\/><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <script>\n document.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", () => {\n const EXTRA_COUNT_ADDED = 1000;\n\n \/\/ Mirrors getInstructorStar(): first token of the headline.\n function getInstructorStar(headline) {\n return (headline || \"\").toString().split(\" \")[0] || \"\";\n }\n\n document.querySelectorAll(\".js-scaler-courses\").forEach(container => {\n if (container.dataset.initialized === \"true\") return;\n container.dataset.initialized = \"true\";\n\n const swiperElement = container.querySelector(\".scaler-courses-swiper\");\n const wrapper = container.querySelector(\".js-courses-wrapper\");\n const template = container.querySelector(\".js-course-card-template\");\n const nextBtn = container.querySelector(\".js-courses-next\");\n const prevBtn = container.querySelector(\".js-courses-prev\");\n\n if (!wrapper || !template) return;\n\n const swiper = new Swiper(swiperElement, {\n slidesPerView: \"auto\",\n spaceBetween: 16,\n grabCursor: true,\n observer: true,\n observeParents: true,\n navigation: { nextEl: nextBtn, prevEl: prevBtn },\n });\n\n const pathParts = location.pathname.split(\"\/\").filter(Boolean);\n const currentSlug = pathParts.length > 0 ? pathParts[pathParts.length - 1] : \"homepage\";\n\n function showSkeletons(count = 4) {\n wrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n clone.querySelector(\".scaler-course-card\").classList.add(\"scaler-course-card--skeleton\");\n wrapper.appendChild(clone);\n }\n swiper.update();\n }\n\n function renderCourses(courses) {\n wrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n if (!courses.length) { container.style.display = \"none\"; return; }\n\n courses.forEach(item => {\n const a = item.attributes || {};\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n const instructor = (a.instructors_data && a.instructors_data[0]) || {};\n\n clone.querySelector(\".js-course-link\").href =\n `https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/course\/${a.slug}\/?utm_source=blog&utm_medium=free_courses&utm_content=${currentSlug}`;\n\n const img = clone.querySelector(\".js-course-image\");\n img.src = a.cover_image_thumbnail || a.featured_image || \"\";\n img.alt = a.title || \"\";\n\n clone.querySelector(\".js-course-title\").textContent = a.title || \"\";\n\n const instrEl = clone.querySelector(\".js-course-instructor\");\n if (instructor.name) {\n instrEl.innerHTML = \"A Course by <b><\/b>\";\n instrEl.querySelector(\"b\").textContent = instructor.name;\n } else {\n instrEl.style.display = \"none\";\n }\n\n clone.querySelector(\".js-course-desc\").textContent = a.description || \"\";\n\n \/\/ Star\n const star = getInstructorStar(instructor.star_headline);\n const starWrap = clone.querySelector(\".js-course-star\");\n if (star && star !== \"0\") clone.querySelector(\".js-course-star-val\").textContent = star;\n else starWrap.style.display = \"none\";\n\n \/\/ Enrolled count (+1000 like topics)\n clone.querySelector(\".js-course-reg\").textContent =\n ((a.user_registration_count || 0) + EXTRA_COUNT_ADDED).toLocaleString(\"en-US\");\n\n wrapper.appendChild(clone);\n });\n\n swiper.update();\n swiper.slideTo(0);\n }\n\n async function fetchCourses() {\n try {\n showSkeletons();\n \/\/ Public same-origin endpoint (topics course search). Returns 6 free courses.\n const res = await fetch(\"\/topics\/api\/v1\/search\/courses\", {\n method: \"POST\",\n headers: {\n \"Content-Type\": \"application\/json\",\n \"Accept\": \"application\/json\",\n \"X-Requested-With\": \"XMLHttpRequest\",\n },\n body: JSON.stringify({\n filters: {\n q: \"\",\n page: { limit: 6, current_page: 1 },\n sort: { key: \"user_registration_count\", order: \"desc\" },\n filter_type: null,\n tags: [],\n program: [],\n level: [],\n category_type: [],\n },\n }),\n });\n const json = await res.json();\n const courses = (json && json.data) || [];\n renderCourses(courses);\n } catch (error) {\n console.error(\"Failed to load courses:\", error);\n container.style.display = \"none\";\n }\n }\n\n fetchCourses();\n });\n });\n <\/script>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"dbms-roadmap-phase-2-sql-mastery-weeks-5%e2%80%938\"><\/span><strong>DBMS Roadmap: Phase 2 ,  SQL Mastery (Weeks 5\u20138)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where things become practical. You move from \u201cunderstanding databases\u201d to actually <strong>working with them like a backend developer<\/strong>. The goal here isn\u2019t just to write queries, it\u2019s to write <strong>efficient, readable, and optimized queries<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For broader backend context:<br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/software-engineering\/backend-developer-roadmap\/\">https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/software-engineering\/backend-developer-roadmap\/<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SQL Basics: SELECT, JOIN, GROUP BY, Subqueries<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is your foundation. But instead of just learning syntax, focus on <strong>how queries transform data step by step<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>SELECT, WHERE, ORDER BY<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>SELECT decides <em>what data you want<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>WHERE filters rows before processing<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ORDER BY sorts the final result<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key insight: SQL execution is not top-to-bottom as written. The actual order is:<br><strong>FROM \u2192 WHERE \u2192 GROUP BY \u2192 HAVING \u2192 SELECT \u2192 ORDER BY<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Understanding this helps you debug and optimize queries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>JOINs (INNER, LEFT, RIGHT)<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>JOINs are one of the most important topics for interviews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>INNER JOIN<\/strong> \u2192 returns matching records from both tables<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>LEFT JOIN<\/strong> \u2192 keeps all records from the left table<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>RIGHT JOIN<\/strong> \u2192 keeps all records from the right table<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Deep understanding:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>JOINs internally use algorithms like <strong>nested loop join, hash join, or merge join<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Performance depends on indexing and table size<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>GROUP BY & Aggregation<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Used to summarize data:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), MAX(), MIN()<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Important concept:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>WHERE filters rows <strong>before grouping<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>HAVING filters <strong>after grouping<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Subqueries<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Queries inside queries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Types:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Scalar subqueries (return single value)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Correlated subqueries (run per row \u2192 slower)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Interview tip:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Often replace subqueries with JOINs for better performance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Practice here should be heavy. Solve real datasets, this is where most learning happens.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Advanced SQL: Window Functions, CTEs, Stored Procedures<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where you move from \u201caverage\u201d to <strong>interview-ready<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Window Functions<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>These allow you to perform calculations <strong>across rows without collapsing them<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Examples:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>ROW_NUMBER() \u2192 unique ranking<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>RANK() \u2192 handles ties<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>DENSE_RANK() \u2192 no gaps in ranking<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Use cases:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Top N per group<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Running totals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ranking users or products<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key idea:<br>Window functions use an <strong>OVER() clause<\/strong> with PARTITION and ORDER.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Common Table Expressions (CTEs)<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Temporary result sets using WITH.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Why they matter:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Make complex queries readable<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Help break down logic step-by-step<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used in recursive queries (hierarchies like org charts)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Stored Procedures<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Predefined SQL logic stored in the database.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Why used:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Reusability<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Performance (precompiled)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Security (controlled execution)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">But in modern systems, many companies shift logic to application code instead.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Views, Triggers & Indexing<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This section connects SQL to <strong>real-world database behavior<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Views<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Virtual tables created from queries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Why use them:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Simplify complex queries<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Provide abstraction<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Restrict access to sensitive data<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Types:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Simple views<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Materialized views (physically stored \u2192 faster reads)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Triggers<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Automatically execute when events happen (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Use cases:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Audit logs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Data validation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Maintaining derived data<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Be careful:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Overuse can make systems hard to debug<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Indexing (B-tree, Hash)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is one of the <strong>most important performance concepts<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Without index:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Full table scan \u2192 slow<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With index:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Faster lookup (like a book index)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Types:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>B-tree index<\/strong> \u2192 balanced, supports range queries<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Hash index<\/strong> \u2192 fast equality lookup<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Advanced insights:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Indexes improve read speed but <strong>slow down writes<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Too many indexes = bad performance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Composite indexes depend on column order<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Interview gold question:<br>\u201cWhy is my query slow even with an index?\u201d<br>\u2192 Because of wrong index usage, low selectivity, or poor query structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"dbms-roadmap-phase-3-core-theory-weeks-9%e2%80%9312\"><\/span><strong>DBMS Roadmap: Phase 3 ,  Core Theory (Weeks 9\u201312)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This phase is where <strong>most interview questions come from<\/strong>. You now connect theory with real systems.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Normalization: 1NF to BCNF<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Normalization reduces redundancy and prevents anomalies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>1NF (First Normal Form)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>No repeating groups<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Atomic values<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>2NF<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Remove partial dependency (non-key depends on part of key)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>3NF<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Remove transitive dependency (non-key depends on another non-key)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>BCNF<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Stronger version of 3NF (every determinant must be a candidate key)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Functional Dependencies (FDs)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Define relationships between attributes<br>Example:<br>StudentID \u2192 Name<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Anomalies<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Insertion anomaly \u2192 can\u2019t insert data without other data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Deletion anomaly \u2192 losing important info<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Update anomaly \u2192 inconsistency<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Real insight:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Over-normalization can hurt performance \u2192 denormalization is used in real systems<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>ACID Properties & Transactions<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Transactions ensure reliable database operations, especially in critical systems like banking.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Atomicity<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>All or nothing<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>If one step fails, everything rolls back<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Consistency<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Database remains valid before and after transaction<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Isolation<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Transactions don\u2019t interfere with each other<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Durability<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Once committed, data is permanent<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Real-world example:<br>Money transfer \u2192 both debit and credit must succeed or fail together.<\/p>\n\n\n<style data-wp-block-html=\"css\">\n<style>\n :root {\n --sp-brand: #255aad; \/* brand blue *\/\n --sp-brand-hover: #19468c;\n --sp-card-bg: 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hidden;\n gap: 5px;\n }\n\n .scaler-placement__top {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: row;\n align-items: center;\n width: 100%;\n gap: 18px;\n }\n\n .scaler-placement__stat-block {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n justify-content: center;\n align-items: center;\n width: 30%;\n min-width: 200px;\n flex-shrink: 0;\n background: var(--sp-surface);\n border: 1px solid var(--sp-border);\n border-radius: 16px;\n padding: 16px 10px;\n gap: 8px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-number {\n font-size: 48px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 1;\n color: var(--sp-brand);\n text-align: center;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-label {\n font-size: 13px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 14px;\n color: rgba(37, 90, 173, 0.85);\n text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 0.8px;\n }\n\n .scaler-placement__info {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n justify-content: center;\n flex: 1;\n gap: 10px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__proof-header {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: row;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 8px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__proof-header svg { width: 18px; height: 18px; flex-shrink: 0; }\n .scaler-placement__proof-label {\n font-size: 12px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 16px;\n color: var(--sp-brand);\n text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 1px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__body-text {\n font-size: 16px;\n font-weight: 400;\n line-height: 24px;\n color: var(--sp-text-primary);\n margin: 0;\n }\n\n .scaler-placement__bottom {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n align-items: flex-start;\n margin-left: calc(30% + 18px);\n width: calc(70% - 18px);\n gap: 12px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stats-row {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: row;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 24px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-item {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: row;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 8px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-item > svg {\n color: var(--sp-brand);\n width: 18px;\n height: 18px;\n flex-shrink: 0;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-text {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: row;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 4px;\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-value {\n font-size: 16px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 24px;\n color: var(--sp-text-primary);\n }\n .scaler-placement__stat-desc {\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 400;\n line-height: 20px;\n color: var(--sp-text-secondary);\n }\n\n .scaler-placement__cta,\n .scaler-placement__cta:link,\n .scaler-placement__cta:visited {\n display: inline-flex;\n align-items: center;\n align-self: flex-start;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n line-height: 20px;\n color: var(--sp-brand) !important;\n gap: 6px;\n text-decoration: none;\n cursor: pointer;\n margin-top: 2px;\n transition: color 0.25s ease;\n }\n .scaler-placement__cta:hover,\n .scaler-placement__cta:focus { color: var(--sp-brand-hover) !important; }\n .scaler-placement__cta svg {\n width: 14px;\n height: 14px;\n fill: currentColor;\n transition: transform 0.25s ease;\n }\n .scaler-placement__cta:hover svg { transform: translateX(3px); }\n\n \/* ---- Hiring Partners ---- *\/\n .scaler-hiring {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n flex-wrap: wrap;\n gap: 8px 12px;\n margin: 24px 0 8px;\n padding-top: 16px;\n border-top: 1px solid var(--sp-border);\n }\n .scaler-hiring__label {\n font-size: 14px;\n color: var(--sp-text-secondary);\n white-space: nowrap;\n }\n .scaler-hiring__pills {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n flex-wrap: wrap;\n gap: 8px;\n }\n .scaler-hiring__pill {\n display: inline-flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 6px;\n padding: 5px 12px 5px 5px;\n background: var(--sp-pill-bg);\n border-radius: 999px;\n }\n .scaler-hiring__badge {\n display: inline-flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n flex-shrink: 0;\n width: 24px;\n height: 24px;\n border-radius: 50%;\n background: #ffffff;\n }\n .scaler-hiring__logo {\n width: 16px !important;\n height: 16px !important;\n object-fit: contain;\n margin: 0 !important;\n display: block;\n }\n .scaler-hiring__name {\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--sp-text-primary);\n }\n .scaler-hiring__more {\n font-size: 14px;\n color: var(--sp-text-secondary);\n }\n\n @media (max-width: 768px) {\n .scaler-placement__title { font-size: 18px; margin-bottom: 12px; }\n .scaler-placement__card { gap: 16px; border-radius: 16px; }\n .scaler-placement__top { gap: 12px; }\n .scaler-placement__stat-block { width: 35%; min-width: 110px; padding: 12px 8px; gap: 4px; }\n .scaler-placement__stat-number { font-size: 24px; }\n .scaler-placement__stat-label { font-size: 10px; }\n .scaler-placement__body-text { font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; }\n .scaler-placement__bottom { margin-left: 0; width: 100%; gap: 16px; }\n .scaler-placement__stats-row { flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 10px 16px; }\n .scaler-placement__stat-value { font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; }\n .scaler-placement__stat-desc { font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; }\n }\n<\/style>\n\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\n <meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\n\n <!-- Source Sans Pro (topics font) -->\n <link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Source+Sans+3:wght@400;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n\n<div class=\"scaler-placement\">\n <h2 class=\"scaler-placement__title\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"scaler-placement-report-and-statistics\"><\/span>Scaler Placement Report and Statistics<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__top\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-block\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-number\">\u20b923L<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-label\">AVG CTC<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__info\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__proof-header\">\n <svg viewBox=\"0 0 21 21\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M8.64 0 0 8.683V21h12.257l8.64-8.683V0H8.64zm-.11 17.257H3.725v-4.828H8.53v4.828zm7.901-1.88-4.174 4.194V8.684H1.447l4.076-4.14h10.914l-.006 10.83v.004z\" fill=\"#255aad\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__proof-label\">SCALER PLACEMENT PROOF<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <p class=\"scaler-placement__body-text\">\n Scaler learners achieved 2.5x salary growth with average post-Scaler CTC reaching \u20b923L.\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__bottom\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stats-row\">\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-item\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M11.199 7.957c-3.086 0-5.588 2.502-5.588 5.588s2.502 5.588 5.588 5.588c3.086 0 5.588-2.502 5.588-5.588s-2.502-5.588-5.588-5.588zM3.611 13.545c0-4.191 3.397-7.588 7.588-7.588s7.588 3.397 7.588 7.588c0 4.191-3.397 7.588-7.588 7.588s-7.588-3.397-7.588-7.588z\"><\/path><path d=\"M21.090 6.369h0.003c1.989 0 3.897 0.79 5.303 2.197s2.197 3.314 2.197 5.303-0.79 3.897-2.197 5.303c-1.406 1.407-3.314 2.197-5.303 2.197-0.552 0-1-0.448-1-1s0.448-1 1-1c1.459 0 2.858-0.579 3.889-1.611s1.611-2.43 1.611-3.889c0-1.459-0.58-2.858-1.611-3.889s-2.429-1.611-3.888-1.611c-0.507 0.002-1.013 0.070-1.502 0.203-0.533 0.145-1.082-0.17-1.227-0.703s0.17-1.082 0.703-1.227c0.659-0.179 1.339-0.27 2.021-0.272z\"><\/path><path d=\"M10.906 21.364c-1.605 0-3.186 0.386-4.61 1.126s-2.649 1.811-3.572 3.124c-0.318 0.452-0.941 0.561-1.393 0.243s-0.561-0.941-0.243-1.393c1.107-1.576 2.577-2.862 4.286-3.749s3.606-1.351 5.532-1.351 3.823 0.463 5.532 1.351c1.709 0.888 3.179 2.174 4.286 3.749 0.318 0.452 0.209 1.076-0.243 1.393s-1.076 0.209-1.393-0.243c-0.923-1.313-2.148-2.385-3.572-3.124s-3.005-1.126-4.61-1.126z\"><\/path><path d=\"M25.704 22.493c-1.424-0.74-3.005-1.125-4.61-1.124-0.552 0-1-0.447-1.001-0.999s0.447-1 0.999-1.001c1.926-0.001 3.824 0.462 5.533 1.349s3.179 2.174 4.286 3.751c0.317 0.452 0.208 1.076-0.244 1.393s-1.076 0.208-1.393-0.244c-0.922-1.313-2.147-2.385-3.571-3.125z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-text\">\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__stat-value\">11,000+<\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__stat-desc\">placements<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-item\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M1.2 27.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h28c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-28c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M3.727 4.227c0.338-0.338 0.795-0.527 1.273-0.527h12c0.477 0 0.935 0.19 1.273 0.527s0.527 0.795 0.527 1.273v22c0 0.442-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8s-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8v-22c0-0.053-0.021-0.104-0.059-0.141s-0.088-0.059-0.141-0.059h-12c-0.053 0-0.104 0.021-0.141 0.059s-0.059 0.088-0.059 0.141v22c0 0.442-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8s-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8v-22c0-0.477 0.19-0.935 0.527-1.273z\"><\/path><path d=\"M17.2 12.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h9c0.477 0 0.935 0.19 1.273 0.527s0.527 0.795 0.527 1.273v14c0 0.442-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8s-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8v-14c0-0.053-0.021-0.104-0.059-0.141s-0.088-0.059-0.141-0.059h-9c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M7.2 9.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h4c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-4c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M9.2 17.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h4c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-4c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M7.2 22.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h4c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-4c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M21.2 22.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h2c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-2c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><path d=\"M21.2 17.5c0-0.442 0.358-0.8 0.8-0.8h2c0.442 0 0.8 0.358 0.8 0.8s-0.358 0.8-0.8 0.8h-2c-0.442 0-0.8-0.358-0.8-0.8z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-text\">\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__stat-value\">650+<\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__stat-desc\">companies<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-placement__stat-item\">\n <svg viewBox=\"0 0 25 24\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M5.60938 18.8906C4.74688 18.0281 5.31875 16.2188 4.87813 15.1594C4.4375 14.1 2.75 13.1719 2.75 12C2.75 10.8281 4.41875 9.9375 4.87813 8.84063C5.3375 7.74375 4.74688 5.97187 5.60938 5.10938C6.47187 4.24688 8.28125 4.81875 9.34063 4.37813C10.4 3.9375 11.3281 2.25 12.5 2.25C13.6719 2.25 14.5625 3.91875 15.6594 4.37813C16.7562 4.8375 18.5281 4.24688 19.3906 5.10938C20.2531 5.97187 19.6812 7.78125 20.1219 8.84063C20.5625 9.9 22.25 10.8281 22.25 12C22.25 13.1719 20.5813 14.0625 20.1219 15.1594C19.6625 16.2562 20.2531 18.0281 19.3906 18.8906C18.5281 19.7531 16.7188 19.1812 15.6594 19.6219C14.6 20.0625 13.6719 21.75 12.5 21.75C11.3281 21.75 10.4375 20.0813 9.34063 19.6219C8.24375 19.1625 6.47187 19.7531 5.60938 18.8906Z\" fill=\"#ffffff\" stroke=\"#255aad\" stroke-width=\"1.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><\/path><path d=\"M16.625 9.75L11.1219 15L8.375 12.375\" stroke=\"#255aad\" stroke-width=\"1.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <span class=\"scaler-placement__stat-desc\">Verified data<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <a class=\"scaler-placement__cta\" href=\"https:\/\/d2beiqkhq929f0.cloudfront.net\/public_assets\/assets\/000\/195\/869\/original\/Scaler_Career_Report.pdf?1778499863\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n See full placement report\n <svg viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-hiring\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__label\">Hiring Partners:<\/span>\n <div class=\"scaler-hiring__pills\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__pill\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__badge\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-hiring__logo\" src=\"https:\/\/d19zaobb0foqu6.cloudfront.net\/topics\/images\/googleicon_.svg\" alt=\"Google\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__name\">Google<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__pill\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__badge\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-hiring__logo\" src=\"https:\/\/d19zaobb0foqu6.cloudfront.net\/topics\/images\/amazonicon_.svg\" alt=\"Amazon\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__name\">Amazon<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__pill\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__badge\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-hiring__logo\" src=\"https:\/\/d19zaobb0foqu6.cloudfront.net\/topics\/images\/microsoft.svg\" alt=\"Microsoft\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__name\">Microsoft<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__pill\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__badge\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-hiring__logo\" src=\"https:\/\/d19zaobb0foqu6.cloudfront.net\/topics\/images\/flipkarticon_.svg\" alt=\"Flipkart\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__name\">Flipkart<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__pill\">\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__badge\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-hiring__logo\" src=\"https:\/\/d19zaobb0foqu6.cloudfront.net\/topics\/images\/adobeicon_.svg\" alt=\"Adobe\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__name\">Adobe<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <span class=\"scaler-hiring__more\">1200+ more<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Concurrency Control & Locking<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When multiple users access the database, conflicts occur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Locks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Shared lock \u2192 read<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Exclusive lock \u2192 write<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Deadlocks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Two transactions waiting on each other<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Prevention techniques:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Lock ordering<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Timeout<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Deadlock detection algorithms<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Isolation Levels<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Read Uncommitted<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Read Committed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Repeatable Read<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Serializable<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Each level balances <strong>consistency vs performance<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Query Optimization & Execution Plans<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where DBMS becomes powerful.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When you write a query:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>DBMS converts it into multiple possible execution plans<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Chooses the cheapest one (cost-based optimization)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Execution Plans Show:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Table scans vs index scans<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Join methods<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Estimated cost<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key optimization techniques:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Proper indexing<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Avoid SELECT *<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use JOIN instead of subqueries (in many cases)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Filter early (WHERE clause)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is what separates average developers from strong backend engineers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"dbms-roadmap-phase-4-nosql-beyond-weeks-13%e2%80%9316\"><\/span><strong>DBMS Roadmap: Phase 4 ,  NoSQL & Beyond (Weeks 13\u201316)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Now you step into modern, scalable systems.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>NoSQL Databases: MongoDB, Cassandra, Redis<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Each type solves a specific problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Document Stores (MongoDB)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>JSON-like structure<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flexible schema<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Good for rapidly changing data<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Wide-Column Stores (Cassandra)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Designed for massive scale<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>High write throughput<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used in distributed systems<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Key-Value Stores (Redis)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Extremely fast (in-memory)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used for caching, sessions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SQL vs NoSQL: When to Use What<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is a common system design question.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Use SQL when:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Strong consistency needed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Structured data<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Complex queries<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Use NoSQL when:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>High scalability needed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flexible schema<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Large distributed systems<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Real-world systems often use both together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Database Design for Real-World Applications<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where everything comes together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should be able to design systems like:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>E-commerce app:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Users, Products, Orders<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Relationships and indexing<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Handling transactions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Social media app:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Posts, Likes, Comments<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>High read\/write scaling<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Scaling Concepts:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Sharding<\/strong> - split data across servers<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Replication<\/strong> -  copy data for availability<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\ud83d\udc49 Explore system design:<br><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/system-design\/\">https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/system-design\/<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The goal at this stage is not just knowing concepts, but being able to design systems that handle real-world scale, performance, and reliability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"dbms-interview-questions-preparation-in-depth-guide\"><\/span><strong>DBMS Interview Questions & Preparation (In-Depth Guide)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is the phase where your learning turns into selection-level preparation. At this point, it\u2019s not about knowing topics, it\u2019s about being able to explain, apply, and defend your answers under pressure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most candidates struggle not because they don\u2019t know DBMS, but because they give shallow answers, can\u2019t connect theory to real-world scenarios, or freeze when asked to write queries on the spot.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"most-asked-dbms-topics-what-interviewers-actually-test\"><\/span><strong>Most Asked DBMS Topics (What Interviewers Actually Test)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Normalization & Functional Dependencies<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is one of the most commonly asked areas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">What interviewers look for is your ability to design clean schemas and understand redundancy. You should be able to normalize a table step-by-step from 1NF to BCNF, identify functional dependencies, and explain anomalies clearly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For example, if given a table with StudentID, Course, Instructor, and InstructorPhone, you should recognize that Instructor determines InstructorPhone. This creates a transitive dependency, which means the table should be split into separate relations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A strong answer always includes reasoning, not just definitions. Also, remember that normalization is not always ideal in real systems, denormalization is often used to improve performance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>ACID Properties & Transactions<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This topic checks whether you understand how databases maintain reliability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should explain each property with real-world context. Atomicity means a transaction either fully completes or rolls back. Consistency ensures the database remains valid before and after a transaction. Isolation ensures concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other. Durability guarantees that once a transaction is committed, it is permanently stored.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Strong answers include examples like banking systems and mention mechanisms like write-ahead logging.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A common follow-up is about what happens when isolation is weak. You should be able to discuss issues like dirty reads and phantom reads.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Indexing & Query Optimization<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where interviewers distinguish strong candidates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Indexes improve query performance by avoiding full table scans. However, they come with trade-offs such as slower write operations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should understand index types like B-tree and hash, and more importantly, when indexing fails. For instance, indexes are less useful when there is low selectivity or when queries are written in a way that prevents index usage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should also be comfortable explaining why a query is slow even when an index exists.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Deadlocks & Concurrency Control<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This topic focuses on how databases handle multiple users.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A deadlock occurs when two transactions are waiting on each other indefinitely. You should be able to explain how deadlocks happen, the conditions required for them, and how to prevent or resolve them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should also understand isolation levels such as Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read, and Serializable. Each level represents a trade-off between performance and data consistency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Interviewers often ask scenario-based questions here, so clarity is important.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>SQL Queries (Hands-On Round)<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is where many candidates lose marks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You will be asked to write queries involving joins, aggregations, subqueries, and window functions. It\u2019s important not just to get the answer, but to write clean and efficient queries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You should be comfortable solving problems like finding users who never placed orders, calculating aggregate values, or retrieving ranked results using window functions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A strong candidate can solve a problem using multiple approaches and explain the trade-offs.<\/p>\n\n\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\n <meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\n\n <!-- Source Sans Pro (topics font) -->\n <link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Source+Sans+3:wght@400;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n <link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.css\">\n <script src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/swiper@11\/swiper-bundle.min.js\"><\/script>\n\n <style>\n :root {\n --ss-primary: #005bb3; \/* primary-color-80 *\/\n --ss-card-bg: #ffffff;\n --ss-border: #e6e6e6;\n --ss-quote-bg: #f6f6f6;\n --ss-text-dark: #1c1c1c;\n --ss-text-mid: #6b6b6b;\n --ss-text-muted: #9a9a9a;\n --ss-radius: 12px;\n --ss-radius-sm: 8px;\n --ss-shadow: 0 8px 16px 0 rgba(50, 71, 102, 0.16);\n }\n\n .scaler-ss * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n\n .scaler-ss {\n font-family: \"Source Sans 3\", \"Source Sans Pro\", \"Roboto\", Arial, sans-serif;\n padding: 24px;\n width: 100%;\n }\n .scaler-ss__inner {\n max-width: 1000px;\n margin: 0 auto;\n position: relative;\n width: 100%;\n }\n\n \/* Heading *\/\n .scaler-ss__heading {\n font-size: 26px;\n line-height: 34px;\n font-weight: 700;\n margin: 0 0 16px;\n text-align: center;\n color: var(--ss-text-dark);\n }\n\n \/* Swiper *\/\n .scaler-ss__swiper-wrap { position: relative; }\n .scaler-ss .swiper { width: 100%; padding: 4px; }\n .scaler-ss-swiper .swiper-slide {\n width: 300px; \/* topics card width *\/\n height: auto;\n display: flex;\n }\n\n \/* Card *\/\n .scaler-ss-card {\n display: flex;\n flex-direction: column;\n width: 100%;\n border: 1px solid var(--ss-border);\n border-radius: var(--ss-radius);\n overflow: hidden;\n background: var(--ss-card-bg);\n }\n\n .scaler-ss-card__hike {\n padding: 8px 12px;\n background: var(--ss-primary);\n color: #ffffff;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 700;\n text-align: center;\n letter-spacing: 0.4px;\n }\n\n .scaler-ss-card__body {\n display: flex;\n flex: 1 1 auto;\n flex-direction: column;\n gap: 12px;\n padding: 16px;\n }\n\n \/* Person *\/\n .scaler-ss-card__person {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n gap: 10px;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__avatar {\n width: 44px;\n height: 44px;\n min-width: 44px;\n border-radius: 50%;\n object-fit: cover;\n background: var(--ss-quote-bg);\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__name {\n font-size: 16px;\n font-weight: 700;\n line-height: 20px;\n color: var(--ss-text-dark);\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__city {\n font-size: 13px;\n line-height: 18px;\n color: var(--ss-text-mid);\n }\n\n \/* Before \/ Now transition *\/\n .scaler-ss-card__transition {\n display: flex;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: space-between;\n gap: 8px;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__col {\n flex: 1;\n min-width: 0;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__col-label {\n font-size: 11px;\n font-weight: 600;\n letter-spacing: 0.4px;\n color: var(--ss-text-muted);\n margin-bottom: 2px;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__col-role {\n font-size: 13px;\n line-height: 18px;\n color: var(--ss-text-mid);\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__col-company {\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 700;\n line-height: 20px;\n color: var(--ss-text-dark);\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__company-logo {\n margin-top: 2px;\n max-width: 64px;\n max-height: 20px;\n width: auto;\n height: auto;\n object-fit: contain;\n display: block;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__arrow {\n flex-shrink: 0;\n width: 28px;\n height: 8px;\n color: var(--ss-text-mid);\n fill: currentColor;\n }\n\n \/* Quote *\/\n .scaler-ss-card__quote {\n font-size: 13px;\n font-style: italic;\n line-height: 19px;\n color: var(--ss-text-mid);\n background: var(--ss-quote-bg);\n border-radius: var(--ss-radius-sm);\n padding: 8px 10px;\n }\n\n \/* View Profile *\/\n .scaler-ss-card__cta,\n .scaler-ss-card__cta:link,\n .scaler-ss-card__cta:visited {\n display: block;\n margin-top: auto;\n text-align: center;\n font-size: 14px;\n font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--ss-primary) !important;\n text-decoration: none;\n border: 1px solid var(--ss-primary);\n border-radius: var(--ss-radius-sm);\n padding: 9px 12px;\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: background 0.2s ease, color 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card__cta:hover,\n .scaler-ss-card__cta:focus {\n background: var(--ss-primary);\n color: #ffffff !important;\n }\n\n \/* Side navigation arrows *\/\n .scaler-ss__nav {\n position: absolute !important;\n top: 50% !important;\n transform: translateY(-50%) !important;\n z-index: 2;\n width: 46px !important;\n height: 46px !important;\n min-width: 46px;\n display: flex !important;\n align-items: center;\n justify-content: center;\n padding: 0 !important;\n background: var(--ss-card-bg) !important;\n border: none !important;\n border-radius: var(--ss-radius-sm) !important;\n box-shadow: var(--ss-shadow) !important;\n color: #61738e !important;\n cursor: pointer;\n transition: opacity 0.2s ease, visibility 0.2s ease;\n }\n .scaler-ss__nav--prev { left: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-ss__nav--next { right: 8px !important; }\n .scaler-ss__nav svg {\n width: 20px !important;\n height: 20px !important;\n fill: #61738e !important;\n }\n .scaler-ss__nav.swiper-button-disabled {\n opacity: 0;\n visibility: hidden;\n pointer-events: none;\n }\n\n .scaler-ss .swiper-button-prev,\n .scaler-ss .swiper-button-next,\n .scaler-ss .swiper-pagination { display: none; }\n\n \/* Skeleton *\/\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton { pointer-events: none; }\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__hike,\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__avatar,\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__person-text,\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__transition,\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__quote,\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__cta {\n background: linear-gradient(90deg, var(--ss-border) 25%, var(--ss-quote-bg) 50%, var(--ss-border) 75%);\n background-size: 200% 100%;\n animation: ss-shimmer 1.5s infinite;\n color: transparent !important;\n border-color: transparent !important;\n border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__person-text { flex: 1; height: 32px; }\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__transition { height: 56px; }\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__quote { height: 48px; }\n .scaler-ss-card--skeleton .scaler-ss-card__cta { height: 38px; }\n\n @keyframes ss-shimmer {\n 0% { background-position: 200% 0; }\n 100% { background-position: -200% 0; }\n }\n\n @media (max-width: 768px) {\n .scaler-ss { padding: 16px; }\n .scaler-ss__heading { font-size: 22px; line-height: 30px; }\n .scaler-ss-swiper .swiper-slide { width: 270px; }\n .scaler-ss__nav { display: none !important; }\n }\n <\/style>\n\n\n\n <div class=\"scaler-ss js-scaler-ss\">\n\n <template class=\"js-ss-card-template\">\n <div class=\"swiper-slide\">\n <article class=\"scaler-ss-card\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__hike js-ss-hike\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__body\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__person\">\n <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaler-ss-card__avatar js-ss-avatar\" src=\"\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__person-text\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__name js-ss-name\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__city js-ss-city\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__transition\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col-label\">BEFORE:<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col-role js-ss-before-role\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col-company js-ss-before-company\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <svg class=\"scaler-ss-card__arrow\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 8\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M31.3882 4.35355C31.5835 4.15829 31.5835 3.84171 31.3882 3.64645L28.2062 0.464466C28.011 0.269204 27.6944 0.269204 27.4991 0.464466C27.3039 0.659728 27.3039 0.976311 27.4991 1.17157L30.3276 4L27.4991 6.82843C27.3039 7.02369 27.3039 7.34027 27.4991 7.53553C27.6944 7.7308 28.011 7.7308 28.2062 7.53553L31.3882 4.35355ZM0.034668 4.5H31.0347V3.5H0.034668V4.5Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col\">\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col-label\">NOW:<\/div>\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__col-role js-ss-now-role\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"js-ss-now-company\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-ss-card__quote js-ss-quote\"><\/div>\n\n <a class=\"scaler-ss-card__cta js-ss-cta\" href=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">View Profile<\/a>\n <\/div>\n <\/article>\n <\/div>\n <\/template>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-ss__inner\">\n <h2 class=\"scaler-ss__heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"scaler-alumni-and-their-success-stories\"><\/span>Scaler Alumni and Their Success Stories<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n <div class=\"scaler-ss__swiper-wrap\">\n <div class=\"swiper scaler-ss-swiper\">\n <div class=\"swiper-wrapper js-ss-wrapper\"><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <button class=\"scaler-ss__nav scaler-ss__nav--prev js-ss-prev\" aria-label=\"Previous\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(-90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"scaler-ss__nav scaler-ss__nav--next js-ss-next\" aria-label=\"Next\">\n <svg fill=\"currentColor\" viewBox=\"0 0 32 32\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" style=\"transform: rotate(90deg);\"><path d=\"M5.313 16l10.688-10.688 10.688 10.688-1.938 1.875-7.438-7.438v16.25h-2.625v-16.25l-7.5 7.438z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <script>\n document.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", () => {\n\n const ASSET_CDN = \"https:\/\/d2beiqkhq929f0.cloudfront.net\/public_assets\/assets\";\n const AVATAR_FALLBACK =\n \"data:image\/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg' width='44' height='44' viewBox='0 0 44 44'%3E%3Ccircle cx='22' cy='22' r='22' fill='%23e6e6e6'\/%3E%3Ccircle cx='22' cy='17' r='7' fill='%23b9b9b9'\/%3E%3Cpath d='M8 40c0-8 6.3-13 14-13s14 5 14 13' fill='%23b9b9b9'\/%3E%3C\/svg%3E\";\n\n \/\/ Mirrors buildAssetUrl(): pass through absolute urls, else build the CDN url.\n function buildAssetUrl(raw) {\n if (!raw) return \"\";\n if (String(raw).startsWith(\"http\")) return raw;\n return `${ASSET_CDN}\/${raw}\/original`;\n }\n\n const instances = document.querySelectorAll(\".js-scaler-ss\");\n\n instances.forEach(container => {\n if (container.dataset.initialized === \"true\") return;\n container.dataset.initialized = \"true\";\n\n const swiperElement = container.querySelector(\".scaler-ss-swiper\");\n const wrapper = container.querySelector(\".js-ss-wrapper\");\n const template = container.querySelector(\".js-ss-card-template\");\n const nextBtn = container.querySelector(\".js-ss-next\");\n const prevBtn = container.querySelector(\".js-ss-prev\");\n\n if (!wrapper || !template) {\n console.error(\"Scaler Success Stories: missing required elements\");\n return;\n }\n\n const swiper = new Swiper(swiperElement, {\n slidesPerView: \"auto\",\n spaceBetween: 16,\n grabCursor: true,\n observer: true,\n observeParents: true,\n navigation: { nextEl: nextBtn, prevEl: prevBtn },\n });\n\n const pathParts = location.pathname.split(\"\/\").filter(Boolean);\n const currentSlug = pathParts.length > 0 ? pathParts[pathParts.length - 1] : \"homepage\";\n const profileUrl =\n `https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/review\/?utm_source=blog&utm_medium=success_stories&utm_content=${currentSlug}`;\n\n function showSkeletons(count = 4) {\n wrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n clone.querySelector(\".scaler-ss-card\").classList.add(\"scaler-ss-card--skeleton\");\n wrapper.appendChild(clone);\n }\n swiper.update();\n }\n\n function renderStories(stories) {\n wrapper.innerHTML = \"\";\n if (!stories.length) {\n container.style.display = \"none\"; \/\/ match topics: render nothing when empty\n return;\n }\n\n stories.forEach(story => {\n const a = story.attributes || {};\n const clone = template.content.cloneNode(true);\n\n const hike = String(a.growth || \"\").replace(\"%\", \"\").trim() || \"150\";\n clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-hike\").textContent = `${hike}% HIKE`;\n\n \/\/ Avatar\n const avatar = buildAssetUrl(a.image_url) || a.generated_thumbnail_url || \"\";\n const img = clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-avatar\");\n img.src = avatar || AVATAR_FALLBACK;\n img.alt = a.name || \"Scaler alumnus\";\n img.onerror = function () { this.onerror = null; this.src = AVATAR_FALLBACK; };\n\n clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-name\").textContent = a.name || \"\";\n const cityEl = clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-city\");\n if (a.city) cityEl.textContent = a.city; else cityEl.style.display = \"none\";\n\n \/\/ BEFORE\n clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-before-role\").textContent = a.pre_scaler_role || a.pre_academy_company || \"\";\n const beforeCompany = clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-before-company\");\n if (a.pre_academy_company) beforeCompany.textContent = a.pre_academy_company;\n else beforeCompany.style.display = \"none\";\n\n \/\/ NOW\n clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-now-role\").textContent = a.role || \"\";\n const nowCompanyBox = clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-now-company\");\n const companyLogo = buildAssetUrl(a.company_logo_url);\n if (companyLogo) {\n const logo = document.createElement(\"img\");\n logo.className = \"scaler-ss-card__company-logo\";\n logo.src = companyLogo;\n logo.alt = a.post_academy_company || \"company\";\n logo.loading = \"lazy\";\n logo.onerror = function () {\n this.onerror = null;\n this.replaceWith(Object.assign(document.createElement(\"div\"), {\n className: \"scaler-ss-card__col-company\",\n textContent: a.post_academy_company || \"\",\n }));\n };\n nowCompanyBox.appendChild(logo);\n } else if (a.post_academy_company) {\n nowCompanyBox.className = \"scaler-ss-card__col-company\";\n nowCompanyBox.textContent = a.post_academy_company;\n }\n\n \/\/ Quote (clip to 110 chars like topics)\n const quoteEl = clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-quote\");\n quoteEl.textContent = `\u201c${String(a.content).slice(0, 110)}\u2026\u201d`;\n\n \/\/ View Profile\n clone.querySelector(\".js-ss-cta\").href = profileUrl;\n\n wrapper.appendChild(clone);\n });\n\n swiper.update();\n swiper.slideTo(0);\n }\n\n async function fetchStories() {\n try {\n showSkeletons();\n \/\/ Same-origin POST on www.scaler.com (the blog canonical host).\n \/\/ The endpoint only returns JSON when the Referer is a \/topics\/ page\n \/\/ (a soft anti-hotlinking gate); a \/blog\/ referer gets a Turbolinks\n \/\/ redirect. Since blog + topics are the same origin, we set the\n \/\/ fetch referrer to a topics URL so the server serves the data.\n const res = await fetch(\"\/success-stories\/testimonials\", {\n method: \"POST\",\n credentials: \"include\",\n referrer: \"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/topics\/\",\n referrerPolicy: \"unsafe-url\",\n headers: {\n \"Content-Type\": \"application\/json\",\n \"Accept\": \"application\/json\",\n \"X-Requested-With\": \"XMLHttpRequest\",\n },\n \/\/ q:{} => all programs (no program filter)\n body: JSON.stringify({\n page_number: 1,\n per_page: 12,\n sort_by: \"eligible_for_qna\",\n new_quick_filters: true,\n quick_filter: [],\n q: {},\n }),\n });\n const json = await res.json();\n const all = (json && json.data && json.data.data) || [];\n \/\/ Only show stories that carry a testimonial quote (matches topics).\n const withQuote = all.filter(s => s.attributes && s.attributes.content);\n renderStories(withQuote);\n } catch (error) {\n console.error(\"Failed to load success stories:\", error);\n container.style.display = \"none\";\n }\n }\n\n fetchStories();\n });\n });\n <\/script>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"preparation-strategy-what-actually-works\"><\/span><strong>Preparation Strategy (What Actually Works)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Revise Theory the Right Way<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Avoid memorizing definitions. Focus on understanding concepts deeply and explaining them in your own words. Use real-world examples and try teaching the concept to someone else. This improves clarity and retention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Practice SQL Daily<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Consistency is key. Spend time every day writing queries and solving problems. Focus on joins, aggregations, subqueries, and window functions. Gradually increase the difficulty level.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Solve Interview Questions<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Practice common patterns such as normalization problems, transaction scenarios, and query optimization. Over time, you\u2019ll start recognizing patterns quickly during interviews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Mock Interviews<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Mock interviews are one of the most effective ways to prepare. They help you improve communication, handle pressure, and identify weak areas. After each mock, review your performance and refine your answers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"final-insight\"><\/span><strong>Final Insight<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At a higher level, interviewers are not just testing your knowledge of DBMS. They are evaluating whether you can think like a backend engineer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If you can write efficient SQL queries, explain concepts clearly, and apply them to real-world scenarios, you will stand out.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"read-these-important-roadmaps-more-paths-to-career-success\"><\/span>Read These Important Roadmaps: More Paths to Career Success<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><tbody><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/ai-engineer-roadmap-master-genai-llms-deep-learning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">AI Engineer Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/java-full-stack-developer-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Java Full Stack Developer Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/data-engineer-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Data Engineer Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/agentic-ai-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Agentic AI Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/the-embedded-systems-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">The Embedded Systems Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/data-analyst-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Data Analyst Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/generative-ai-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Generative AI Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/dsa-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">DSA Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/full-stack-developer-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Full Stack Developer Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/machine-learning-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Machine Learning Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/mlops-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">MLOps Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/mern-stack-roadmap-complete-learning-and-career-path-guide\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">MERN Stack Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/backend-developer-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Backend Developer Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/sde-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">SDE Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/computer-vision-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Computer Vision Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/dbms-roadmap-2026-complete-learning-path-for-beginners-to-advanced\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">DBMS Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/data-science-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Data Science Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/devops-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">DevOps Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/web-development-roadmap\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Web Development Roadmap<\/a><\/td><td><a href=\"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/python-roadmap-six-month-path-to-master-core-ai-web-dev\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Python Roadmap<\/a><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"faqs\"><\/span><strong>FAQs<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Q1: How long does it take to learn DBMS?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>It typically takes around 3 to 4 months to learn DBMS properly if you follow a structured roadmap like this one. Spending 1\u20132 hours daily is enough to cover both theory and practical SQL, along with revision and interview preparation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Q2: Is DBMS asked in coding interviews?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>Yes, DBMS is frequently asked in SDE interviews, especially in product-based companies. While coding rounds focus on DSA, DBMS is heavily tested in technical interviews through conceptual and scenario-based questions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Q3: What is the difference between DBMS and RDBMS?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>DBMS refers to any system that manages databases, while RDBMS specifically uses relational tables with structured schemas and supports SQL. RDBMS also enforces constraints and relationships between data.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Q4: Should I learn SQL before DBMS?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>You can start DBMS and SQL together, but understanding basic DBMS concepts first makes SQL easier to learn. DBMS provides the theory, while SQL helps you apply it practically.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Q5: What are the most important DBMS topics for placements?<\/strong><strong><br><\/strong>The most important topics include normalization, ACID properties, transactions, indexing, deadlocks, SQL queries, and query optimization. These are commonly asked in interviews and are essential for backend development roles.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Introduction DBMS is one of the most important core subjects for computer science students and is consistently asked in product company interviews. Whether you\u2019re preparing for placements or aiming for backend roles, a strong understanding of databases is non-negotiable. This roadmap gives you a clear, step-by-step path: from ER modeling and normalization to SQL mastery, […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":210,"featured_media":12502,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[37,316],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-12474","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning","category-artificial-intelligence"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12474","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/210"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=12474"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12474\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":14114,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12474\/revisions\/14114"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/12502"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=12474"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=12474"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.scaler.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=12474"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}